Bryan Cardella
RNA
Slide Duration:Table of Contents
Section 1: Introduction to Biology
Scientific Method
26m 23s
- Intro0:00
- Origins of the Scientific Method0:04
- Steps of the Scientific Method3:08
- Observe3:21
- Ask a Question4:00
- State a Hypothesis4:08
- Obtain Data (Experiment)4:25
- Interpret Data (Result)5:01
- Analysis (Form Conclusions)5:38
- Scientific Method in Action6:16
- Control vs. Experimental Groups7:24
- Independent vs. Dependent Variables9:51
- Other Factors Remain Constant11:03
- Scientific Method Example13:58
- Scientific Method Illustration17:35
- More on the Scientific Method22:16
- Experiments Need to Duplicate24:07
- Peer Review24:46
- New Discoveries25:23
Molecular Basis of Biology
46m 22s
- Intro0:00
- Building Blocks of Matter0:06
- Matter0:32
- Mass1:10
- Atom1:48
- Ions5:50
- Bonds8:29
- Molecules9:55
- Ionic Bonds9:57
- Covalent Bonds11:10
- Water12:30
- Organic Compounds17:48
- Carbohydrates18:04
- Lipids19:43
- Proteins20:42
- Nucleic Acids22:21
- Carbohydrates22:54
- Sugars22:56
- Functions23:42
- Molecular Representation Formula26:34
- Examples27:15
- Lipids28:44
- Fats28:46
- Triglycerides29:04
- Functions32:10
- Steroids33:43
- Saturated Fats34:18
- Unsaturated Fats36:08
- Proteins37:26
- Amino Acids37:58
- 3D Structure Relates to Their Function38:54
- Structural Proteins vs Globular Proteins39:41
- Functions40:41
- Nucleic Acids42:53
- Nucleotides43:04
- DNA and RNA44:34
- Functions45:07
Section 2: Cells: Structure & Function
Cells: Parts & Characteristics
1h 12m 12s
- Intro0:00
- Microscopes0:06
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek0:58
- Robert Hooke1:36
- Matthias Schleiden2:52
- Theodor Schwann3:19
- Electron Microscopes4:16
- SEM and TEM4:54
- The Cell Theory5:21
- 3 Tenets5:24
- All Organisms Are Composed of One Or More Cells5:46
- The Cell is the Basic Unit of Structure and Function for Organisms6:01
- All Cells Comes from Preexisting Cells6:34
- The Characteristics of Life8:09
- Display Organization8:18
- Grow and Develop9:12
- Reproduce9:33
- Respond to Stimuli9:55
- Maintain Homeostasis10:23
- Can Evolve11:37
- Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote11:53
- Prokaryote12:13
- Eukaryote14:00
- Cell Parts16:53
- Plasma Membrane18:27
- Cell Membrane18:29
- Protective and Regulatory18:52
- Semi-Permeable19:18
- Polar Heads with Non-Polar Tails20:52
- Proteins are Imbedded in the Layer22:46
- Nucleus25:53
- Contains the DNA in Nuclear Envelope26:31
- Brain on the Cell28:12
- Nucleolus28:26
- Ribosome29:02
- Protein Synthesis Sites29:25
- Made of RNA and Protein29:29
- Found in Cytoplasm30:24
- Endoplasmic Reticulum31:49
- Adjacent to Nucleus32:07
- Site of Numerous Chemical Reactions32:37
- Rough32:56
- Smooth33:48
- Golgi Apparatus34:54
- Flattened Membranous Sacs35:10
- Function35:45
- Cell Parts Review37:06
- Mitochondrion39:45
- Mitochondria39:50
- Membrane-Bound Organelles40:07
- Outer Double Membrane40:57
- Produces Energy-Storing Molecules41:46
- Chloroplast43:45
- In Plant Cells43:47
- Membrane-Bound Organelles with Their Own DNA and Ribosomes44:20
- Thylakoids44:59
- Produces Sugars Through Photosynthesis45:46
- Vacuoles/ Vesicles46:44
- Vacuoles47:03
- Vesicles47:59
- Lysosome50:21
- Membranous Sac for Breakdown of Molecules50:34
- Contains Digestive Enzymes51:55
- Centrioles53:15
- Found in Pairs53:18
- Made of Cylindrical Ring of Microtubules53:22
- Contained Within Centrosomes53:51
- Functions as Anchors for Spindle Apparatus in Cell Division54:06
- Spindle Apparatus55:27
- Cytoskeleton55:55
- Forms Framework or Scaffolding for Cell56:05
- Provides Network of Protein Fibers for Travel56:24
- Made of Microtubules, Microfilaments, and Intermediate Filaments57:18
- Cilia59:21
- Cilium59:27
- Made of Ring of Microtubules1:00:00
- How They Move1:00:35
- Flagellum1:02:42
- Flagella1:02:51
- Long, Tail-Like Projection from a Cell1:02:59
- How They Move1:03:27
- Cell Wall1:05:21
- Outside of Plasma Membrane1:05:25
- Extra Protection and Rigidity for a Cell1:05:52
- In Plants1:07:19
- In Bacteria1:07:25
- In Fungi1:07:41
- Cytoplasm1:08:07
- Fluid-Filled Region of a Cell1:08:24
- Sight for Majority of the Cellular Reactions1:08:47
- Cytosol1:09:29
- Animal Cell vs. Plant Cell1:09:10
Cellular Transport
32m 1s
- Intro0:00
- Passive Transport0:05
- Movement of Substances in Nature Without the Input of Energy0:14
- High Concentration to Low Concentration0:36
- Opposite of Active Transport1:41
- No Net Movement3:20
- Diffusion3:55
- Definition of Diffusion3:58
- Examples4:07
- Facilitated Diffusion7:32
- Definition of Facilitated Diffusion7:49
- Osmosis9:34
- Definition of Osmosis9:42
- Examples10:50
- Concentration Gradient15:55
- Definition of Concentration Gradient16:01
- Relative Concentrations17:32
- Hypertonic Solution17:48
- Hypotonic Solution20:07
- Isotonic Solution21:27
- Active Transport22:49
- Movement of Molecules Across a Membrane with the Use Energy22:51
- Example23:30
- Endocytosis25:53
- Wrapping Around of Part of the Plasma26:13
- Examples26:26
- Phagocytosis28:54
- Pinocytosis29:02
- Exocytosis29:40
- Releasing Material From Inside of a Cell29:43
- Opposite of Endocytosis29:50
Cellular Energy, Part I
52m 11s
- Intro0:00
- Energy Facts0:05
- Law of Thermodynamics0:16
- Potential Energy2:27
- Kinetic Energy2:50
- Chemical Energy3:01
- Mechanical Energy3:20
- Solar Energy3:41
- ATP Structure4:07
- Adenosine Triphosphate4:12
- Common Energy Source4:25
- ATP Function6:13
- How It Works7:18
- What It Is Used For7:43
- GTP9:36
- ATP Cycle10:35
- ATP Formation10:49
- ATP Use12:12
- Enzyme Basics13:51
- Catalysts13:59
- Protein-Based14:39
- Reaction Occurs14:51
- Enzyme Structure19:14
- Active Site19:23
- Induced Fit20:15
- Enzyme Function21:22
- What Enzymes Help With21:31
- Inhibition21:57
- Ideal Environment to Function Properly22:57
- Enzyme Examples25:26
- Amylase25:34
- Catalase26:03
- DNA Polymerase26:21
- Rubisco27:06
- Photosynthesis28:19
- Process To Make Glucose28:27
- Photoauthotrophs28:34
- Endergonic30:08
- Reaction30:22
- Chloroplast Structure31:55
- Photosynthesis Factories Found in Plant Cells32:26
- Thylakoids32:29
- Stroma33:18
- Chloroplast Micrograph34:14
- Photosystems34:46
- Thylakoid Membranes Are Filled with These Reaction Centers34:58
- Photosystem II and Photosystem I35:47
- Light Reactions37:09
- Light-Dependent Reactions37:24
- Step 137:35
- Step 238:31
- Step 339:33
- Step 440:33
- Step 540:51
- Step 641:30
- Dark Reactions43:15
- Light-Independent Reactions or Calvin Cycle43:19
- Calvin Cycle44:54
Cellular Energy, Part II
40m 50s
- Intro0:00
- Aerobic Respiration0:05
- Process of Breaking Down Carbohydrates to Make ATP0:45
- Glycolysis1:44
- Krebs Cycle1:48
- Oxidative Phosphorylation2:06
- Produces About 36 ATP2:24
- Glycolysis3:35
- Breakdown of Sugar Into Pyruvates4:16
- Occurs in the Cytoplasm4:30
- Krebs Cycle11:40
- Citric Acid Cycle11:42
- Acetyl-CoA12:04
- How Pyruvate Gets Modified into acetyl-CoA12:35
- Oxidative Phosphorylation22:45
- Anaerobic Respiration29:44
- Lactic Acid Fermentation31:06
- Alcohol Fermentation31:51
- Produces Only the ATP From Glycolysis32:09
- Aerobic Respiration vs. Photosynthesis36:43
Cell Division
1h 9m 12s
- Intro0:00
- Purposes of Cell Division0:05
- Growth and Development0:17
- Tissue Regeneration0:51
- Reproduction1:51
- Cell Size Limitations4:01
- Surface-to-Volume Ratio5:33
- Genome-to-Volume Ratio10:29
- The Cell Cycle12:20
- Interphase13:23
- Mitosis14:08
- Cytokinesis14:21
- Chromosome Structure16:08
- Sister Chromatids19:00
- Centromere19:22
- Chromatin19:48
- Interphase21:38
- Growth Phase #122:25
- Synthesis of DNA23:09
- Growth Phase #223:52
- Mitosis25:13
- 4 Main Phases25:21
- Purpose of Mitosis26:40
- Prophase28:46
- Condense DNA28:56
- Nuclear Envelope Breaks Down29:44
- Nucleolus Disappears30:04
- Centriole Pairs Move to Poles30:31
- Spindle Apparatus Forms31:22
- Metaphase32:36
- Chromosomes Line Up Along Equator32:43
- Metaphase Plate33:29
- Anaphase34:21
- Sister Chromatids are Separated34:26
- Sister Chromatids Migrate Towards Poles36:59
- Telophase37:17
- Chromatids Become De-Condensed37:31
- Nuclear Envelope Reforms37:59
- Nucleoli Reappears38:22
- Spindle Apparatus Breaks Down38:32
- Cytokinesis39:01
- In Animal Cells39:31
- In Plant Cells40:38
- Cancer in Relation to Mitosis41:59
- Cancer Can Occur in Multicellular Organism42:31
- Particular Genes Control the Pace43:11
- Benign vs. Malignant45:13
- Metastasis46:45
- Natural Killer Cells47:33
- Meiosis48:17
- Produces 4 Cells with Half the Number of Chromosomes49:02
- Produces Genetically Unique Daughter Cells51:56
- Meiosis I52:39
- Prophase I53:14
- Metaphase I57:44
- Anaphase I59:10
- Telophase I1:00:00
- Meiosis II1:01:04
- Prophase II1:01:08
- Metaphase II1:01:32
- Anaphase II1:02:08
- Telophase II1:02:43
- Meiosis Overview1:03:39
- Products of Meiosis1:06:00
- Gametes1:06:10
- Sperm and Egg1:06:17
- Different Process for Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis1:06:27
Section 3: From DNA to Protein
DNA
51m 42s
- Intro0:00
- DNA: Its Role and Characteristics0:05
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid0:17
- Double Helix1:28
- Nucleotides2:31
- Anti-parallel2:46
- Self-Replicating3:36
- Codons, Genes, Chromosomes3:56
- DNA: The Discovery5:13
- DNA First Mentioned5:50
- Bacterial Transformation with DNA6:32
- Base Pairing Rule8:06
- DNA is Hereditary Material9:44
- X-Ray Crystallography Images10:46
- DNA Structure11:49
- Nucleotides12:54
- The Double Helix16:34
- Hydrogen Bonding16:40
- Backbone of Phosphates and Sugars19:25
- Strands are Anti-Parallel19:37
- Nitrogenous Bases20:52
- Purines21:38
- Pyrimidines22:46
- DNA Replication Overview24:33
- DNA Must Duplicate Every Time a Cell is Going to Divide24:34
- Semiconservative Replication24:49
- How Does it Occur?27:34
- DNA Replication Steps28:39
- DNA Helicase Unzips Double Stranded DNA28:49
- RNA Primer is Laid Down29:10
- DNA Polymerase Attaches Complementary Bases in Continuous Manner30:07
- DNA Polymerase Attaches Complementary Bases in Fragments31:06
- DNA Polymerase Replaces RNA Primers31:22
- DNA Ligase Connects Fragments Together31:44
- DNA Replication Illustration32:25
- 'Junk' DNA45:02
- Only 2% of the Human Genome Codes for Protein45:11
- What Does Junk DNA Mean to Us?46:52
- DNA Technology Uses These Sequences49:20
RNA
51m 59s
- Intro0:00
- The Central Dogma0:04
- Transcription0:57
- Translation1:11
- RNA: Its Role and Characteristics2:02
- Ribonucleic Acid2:06
- How It Is Different From DNA2:59
- DNA and RNA Differences5:00
- Types of RNA6:01
- Messenger RNA6:15
- Ribosomal RNA6:49
- Transfer RNA7:52
- Others8:54
- Transcription9:26
- Process in Which RNA is Made From a Gene in DNA9:30
- How It's Done9:55
- Summary of Steps10:35
- Transcription Steps11:54
- Initiation11:57
- Elongation15:57
- Termination18:10
- RNA Processing21:35
- Pre-mRNA21:37
- Modifications21:53
- Translation27:01
- Process in Which mRNA Binds with a Ribosome and tRNA and rRNA Assist27:03
- Summary of Steps28:39
- Translation the mRNA Code28:59
- Every Codon in mRNA Gets Translated to an Amino Acid29:14
- Chart Providing the Resulting Translation29:19
- Translation Steps32:20
- Initiation32:23
- Elongation35:31
- Termination38:43
- Mutations40:22
- Code in DNA is Subject to Change41:00
- Why Mutations Happen41:23
- Point Mutation43:16
- Insertion / Deletion47:58
- Duplications50:03
Genetics, Part I
1h 15m 17s
- Intro0:00
- Gregor Mendel0:05
- Father of Genetics0:39
- Experimented with Crossing Peas1:02
- Discovered Consistent Patterns2:37
- Mendel's Laws of Genetics3:10
- Law of Segregation3:20
- Law of Independent Assortment5:07
- Genetics Vocabulary #16:28
- Gene6:42
- Allele7:18
- Homozygous8:25
- Heterozygous9:39
- Genotype10:15
- Phenotype11:01
- Hybrid11:53
- Pure Breeding12:28
- Generation Vocabulary13:03
- Parental Generation13:25
- 1st Filial13:58
- 2nd Filial14:06
- Punnett Squares15:07
- Monohybrid Cross18:52
- Mating Pure-Breeding Peas in the P Generation19:09
- F1 Cross21:31
- Dihybrid Cross Introduction23:42
- Traced Inheritance of 2 Genes in Pea Plants23:50
- Dihybrid Cross Example26:07
- Phenotypic Ratio31:34
- Incomplete Dominance32:02
- Blended Inheritance32:27
- Example32:35
- Epistasis35:05
- Occurs When a Gene Has the Ability to Completely Cancel Out the Expression of Another Gene35:10
- Example35:30
- Multiple Alleles40:12
- More Than Two Forms of Alleles40:23
- Example41:06
- Polygenic Inheritance46:50
- Many Traits Get Phenotype From the Inheritance of Numerous Genes46:58
- Example47:26
- Test Cross51:53
- In Cases of Complete Dominance52:03
- Test Cross Demonstrates Which Genotype They Have52:52
- Sex-Linked Traits53:56
- Autosomes54:21
- Sex Chromosomes54:57
- Genetic Disorders59:31
- Autosomal Recessive1:00:00
- Autosomal Dominant1:06:17
- Sex-Linked Recessive1:09:19
- Sex-Linked Dominant1:13:41
Genetics, Part II
49m 57s
- Intro0:00
- Karotyping0:04
- Process to Check Chromosomes for Abnormal Characteristics0:08
- Done with Cells From a Fetus0:58
- Amniocentesis1:02
- Normal Karotype2:43
- Abnormal Karotype4:20
- Nondisjunction5:14
- Failure of Chromosomes to Properly Separate During Meiosis5:16
- Nondisjunction5:45
- Typically Causes Chromosomal Disorders Upon Fertilization6:33
- Chromosomal Disorders10:52
- Autosome Disorders11:01
- Sex Chromosome Disorders14:06
- Pedigrees20:29
- Visual Depiction of an Inheritance Pattern for One Gene in a Family's History20:30
- Symbols20:46
- Trait Being Traced is Depicted by Coloring in the Individual21:58
- Pedigree Example #122:26
- Pedigree Example #225:02
- Pedigree Example #327:23
- Environmental Impact30:24
- Gene Expression Is Often Influenced by Environment30:25
- Twin Studies30:35
- Examples31:45
- Genetic Engineering36:03
- Genetic Transformation36:17
- Restriction Enzymes39:09
- Recombinant DNA40:37
- Gene Cloning41:58
- Polymerase Chain Reaction43:13
- Gel Electrophoresis44:37
- Transgenic Organisms48:03
Section 4: History of Life
Evolution
1h 47m 19s
- Intro0:00
- The Scientists Behind the Theory0:04
- Fossil Study and Catastrophism0:18
- Gradualism1:13
- Population Growth2:00
- Early Evolution Thought2:37
- Natural Selection As a Sound Theory8:05
- Darwin's Voyage8:59
- Galapagos Islands Stop9:15
- Theory of Natural Selection11:24
- Natural Selection Summary12:37
- Populations have Enormous Reproductive Potential13:45
- Population Sizes Tend to Remain Relatively Stable14:55
- Resources Are Limited16:51
- Individuals Compete for Survival17:16
- There is Much Variation Among Individuals in a Population17:36
- Much Variation is Heritable18:06
- Only the Most Fit Individuals Survive18:27
- Evolution Occurs As Advantageous Traits Accumulate19:23
- Evidence for Evolution19:47
- Molecular Biology19:53
- Homologous Structures22:55
- Analogous Structures26:20
- Embryology29:36
- Paleontology34:54
- Patterns of Evolution40:14
- Divergent Evolution40:37
- Convergent Evolution43:15
- Co-Evolution46:07
- Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium49:56
- Modes of Selection52:25
- Directional Selection54:40
- Disruptive Selection56:38
- Stabilizing Selection58:07
- Artificial Selection59:56
- Sexual Selection1:02:13
- More on Sexual Selection1:03:00
- Sexual Dimorphism1:03:26
- Examples1:04:50
- Notes on Natural Selection1:09:41
- Phenotype1:10:01
- Only Heritable Traits1:11:00
- Mutations Fuel Natural Selection11:39
- Reproductive Isolation1:12:00
- Temporal Isolation1:12:59
- Behavioral Isolation1:14:17
- Mechanical Isolation1:15:13
- Gametic Isolation1:16:21
- Geographic Isolation1:16:51
- Reproductive Isolation (Post-Zygotic)1:18:37
- Hybrid Sterility1:18:57
- Hybrid Inviability1:20:08
- Hybrid Breakdown1:20:31
- Speciation1:21:02
- Process in Which New Species Forms From an Ancestral Form1:21:13
- Factors That Can Lead to Development of a New Species1:21:19
- Adaptive Radiation1:24:26
- Radiating of Various New Species1:24:28
- Changes in Appearance1:24:56
- Examples1:24:14
- Hardy-Weinberg Theorem1:27:35
- Five Conditions1:28:15
- Equations1:33:55
- Microevolution1:36:59
- Natural Selection1:37:11
- Genetic Drift1:37:34
- Gene Flow1:40:54
- Nonrandom Mating1:41:06
- Clarifications About Evolution1:41:24
- A Single Organism Cannot Evolve1:41:34
- No Single Missing Link with Human Evolution1:43:01
- Humans Did Not Evolve from Chimpanzees1:46:13
Human Evolution
47m 31s
- Intro0:00
- Primates0:04
- Typical Primate Characteristics1:12
- Strepsirrhines3:26
- Haplorhines4:08
- Anthropoids5:03
- New World Monkeys5:15
- Old World Moneys6:20
- Hominoids6:51
- Hominins7:51
- Hominins8:46
- Larger Brains8:53
- Thinner, Flatter Face9:02
- High Manual Dexterity9:30
- Bipedal9:41
- Australopithecines12:11
- Earliest Fossil Evidence for Bipedalism12:24
- Earliest Australopithecines13:06
- Lucy13:35
- The Genus 'Homo'15:20
- Living and Extinct Humans16:46
- Features16:52
- Tool Use17:09
- Homo Habilis17:38
- 2.4 - 1.4 mya18:38
- Handy Human19:19
- Found In Africa19:33
- Homo Ergaster20:11
- 1.8 - 1.2 mya20:14
- Features20:25
- Found In and Outside of Africa20:41
- Most Likely Hunted21:03
- Homo Erectus21:32
- 1.8 - 0.4 mya22:04
- Upright Human22:49
- Found in Africa, Asia, and Europe22:52
- Features22:57
- Used Fire23:07
- Homo Heidelbergensis23:45
- 1.3 - 0.2 mya23:50
- Transitional Form24:22
- Features24:36
- Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis24:56
- 0.3 - 0.2 mya25:23
- Neander Valley25:31
- Found in Europe and Asia21:53
- Constructed Complex Structures27:50
- Modern Human and Neanderthal28:50
- Homo Sapiens Sapiens29:34
- 195,000 Years Ago - Present29:37
- Humans Most Likely Evolved Once29:50
- Features30:26
- Creative and More Control Over the Environment30:37
- Homo Floresiensis31:36
- 18,000 Years Old31:40
- The Hobbit32:09
- Brain and Body Proportions are Similar to Australopithecines32:16
- Human Migration Summary32:49
Origins of Life
40m 58s
- Intro0:00
- Brief History of Earth0:05
- About 4.5 Billion Years Old0:13
- Started Off as a Fiery Ball of Hot Volcanic Activity1:12
- Atmospheric Gas of Early Earth2:20
- Gases Expelled Out of Volcanic Vents3:10
- Building Blocks to Organic Compounds4:47
- Miller-Urey Experiment (1953)5:41
- Stanley Miller and Harold Urey5:48
- Amino Acids Were Found in the Sterile Water Beneath7:27
- Protobionts8:07
- Ancestors of Cells as We Know Them8:19
- Lipid Bubbles with Organic Compounds Inside8:32
- Origin of DNA12:07
- First Cells12:12
- RNA Originally Coded for Protein12:44
- DNA Allows for Retention and a Checking for Errors12:55
- Oxygen Surge14:57
- Photosynthesis Changes Oxygen Gas in Atmosphere16:36
- Cells Absorb Solar Energy with Pigment and Could Make Sugars and Release Oxygen17:05
- Endosymbiotic Theory18:22
- First Eukaryote was Born19:54
- First Proposed by Lynn Margulis22:43
- Multicellular Origins23:08
- Cells That Kept Close Quarters and Stayed Attached Had Safety in Numbers23:28
- Hypothesis23:45
- Cambrian Explosion26:22
- Explosion of Species27:10
- Theory and Snowball Earth28:24
- Timeline of Major Events32:00
Biogenesis
27m 25s
- Intro0:00
- Spontaneous Generation0:04
- Spontaneous Generation0:14
- Pseudoscience1:45
- Individuals Who Sought to Disprove This Theory2:49
- Francesco Redi's Experiment3:33
- 17th Century Italian Scientist3:36
- Wanted to Debunk the Theory That Maggots Emerge From Rotting Raw Meat3:48
- Lazzaro Spallanzani's Experiment6:33
- 18th Century Italian Scientist6:36
- Wanted to Demonstrate That Microbes Could Be Airborne6:58
- Louis Pasteur's Experiment9:47
- 19th Century French Scientist9:51
- Disprove Spontaneous Generation11:17
- Pasteur's Vaccine Discovery13:47
- Motivation to Discover a Way to Immunize People Against Disease14:00
- Cholera Bacteria14:42
- Vaccine Explanation16:42
- Inactive Versions of the Virus are Generated in a Culture16:47
- Antigens Injected Into the Person17:45
- Common Immunizations22:00
- Effectiveness22:03
- No Proof That Vaccines Cause Autism26:33
Section 5: Diversity of Life
Taxonomy
35m 21s
- Intro0:00
- Ancient Classification0:04
- Start of Classification Systems0:56
- How Plants and Animals Were Split Up2:46
- Used in Europe Until 1700s3:27
- Modern Classification3:52
- Carolus Linnaeus3:58
- Taxonomy5:15
- Taxonomic Groups6:57
- Domain7:14
- Kingdom7:29
- Phylum7:39
- Class7:49
- Order8:02
- Family8:09
- Genus8:25
- Species8:45
- Binomial Nomenclature12:10
- Genus Species12:22
- Naming System Rules12:49
- Advantages and Disadvantages to Taxonomy14:56
- Advantages15:00
- Disadvantages17:53
- Domains20:31
- Domain Archaea21:10
- Domain Bacteria21:19
- Domain Eukarya21:43
- Extremophiles22:48
- Kingdoms25:09
- Kingdom Archaebacteria25:17
- Kingdom Eubacteria25:25
- Kingdom Protista25:52
- Kingdom Plantae, Fungi, Animalia27:18
- Cladograms28:07
- Relates Evolution to Phylogeny28:12
- Characteristics Lead to Splitting Off Groups of Organisms28:20
Viruses
44m 25s
- Intro0:00
- Virus Basics0:04
- Non-Living Structures have the Potential to Harm Life on Earth0:14
- Made of Nucleic Acids Wrapped in a Protein Coat2:15
- 5 to 300 nm Wide3:12
- Virus Structure4:29
- Icosahedral4:41
- Spherical5:33
- Bacteriophage6:20
- Helical8:56
- How Do They Invade Cells?11:24
- Viruses Can Fool Cells to Let Them In11:27
- Viruses Use the Organelles of the Host12:29
- Viruses are Host Specific12:57
- Viral Cycle16:18
- Lytic Cycle16:34
- Lysogenic Cycle18:53
- Connection Between Lytic/ Lysogenic23:01
- Retroviruses30:04
- Process is Backwards30:52
- Reverse Transcriptase31:08
- Example31:47
- HIV/ AIDS32:38
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus32:42
- Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome36:27
- Smallpox: A Brief History37:06
- One of the Most Harmful Viral Diseases in Human History37:09
- History37:53
- Prions41:32
- Infectious Proteins That Damage the Nervous System41:33
- Cause Transmittable Spongiform Encephalopathies41:51
- No Known Cure43:42
Bacteria
46m 1s
- Intro0:00
- Archaebacteria0:04
- Thermophiles1:10
- Halophiles2:06
- Acidophiles2:29
- Methanogens2:59
- Archaea and Bacteria Compared to Eukarya4:25
- Archaea and Eukarya4:36
- Bacteria and Eukarya5:37
- Eubacteria6:35
- Nucleoid Region7:02
- Peptidoglycan7:21
- Binary Fission8:08
- No Membrane-Bound Organelles8:59
- Bacterial Shapes10:19
- Coccus10:26
- Bacillus12:07
- Spirillum12:44
- Bacterial Cell Walls13:17
- Gram Positive13:47
- Gram Negative15:09
- Bacterial Adaptations16:13
- Capsule16:18
- Fimbriae17:51
- Conjugation18:30
- Endospore21:30
- Flagella23:49
- Metabolism24:36
- Benefits of Bacteria27:28
- Mutualism27:32
- Connections to Human Life30:56
- Diseases Caused by Bacteria35:05
- STDs35:15
- Respiratory36:04
- Skin37:15
- Digestive Tract38:00
- Nervous System38:27
- Systemic Diseases39:09
- Antibiotics40:26
- Drugs That Block Protein Synthesis40:40
- Drugs That Block Cell Wall Production41:07
- Increased Bacterial Resistance41:36
Protists
32m 46s
- Intro0:00
- Kingdom Protista Basics0:04
- Unicellular and Multicellular0:28
- Asexual and Sexual0:48
- Water and Land1:06
- Resemble Other Life Forms1:32
- Protist Origin2:04
- Evolutionary Bridge Between Bacteria and Multicellular Eukaryotes2:06
- Protist Ancestors2:27
- Protist Debate4:18
- One Kingdom4:30
- Some Scientists Group Into Separate Kingdoms Based on Genetic Links4:37
- Plant-like Protists6:03
- Photoautotrophs6:12
- Green Algae6:44
- Red Algae7:12
- Brown Algae7:57
- Golden Algae9:10
- Dinoflagellates9:20
- Diatoms9:41
- Euglena10:17
- Euglena Structure10:39
- Ulva Life Cycle12:08
- Fungi-Like Protists15:39
- Heterotrophs That Feed on Decaying Organic Matter15:41
- Found Anywhere with Moisture and Warmth16:04
- Cellular Slime Mold Life Cycle17:34
- Animal-like Protists21:45
- Heterotrophs That Eat Live Cells21:50
- Motile22:03
- Amoeba Life Cycle25:24
- How Protists Impact Humans29:09
- Good29:16
- Bad32:18
Plants, Part I
54m 22s
- Intro0:00
- Kingdom Plantae Characteristics0:05
- Cuticle0:38
- Vascular Bundles1:18
- Stomata2:51
- Alternation of Generations4:16
- Plant Origins5:58
- Common Ancestor with Green Algae6:03
- Appeared on Earth 400 Million Years Ago7:28
- Non-Vascular Plants8:17
- Bryophytes8:45
- Anthoworts9:12
- Hepaticophytes9:19
- Bryophyte (Moss) Life Cycle9:30
- Dominant Gametophyte9:38
- Illustration Explanation9:58
- Seedless Vascular Plants15:26
- Do Not Reproduce With Seeds15:33
- Sori15:42
- Lycophytes15:54
- Pterophytes16:30
- Pterophyte (Fern) Life Cycle17:05
- Dominant Generation17:08
- Produce Motile Sperm17:17
- Seed Plants23:17
- Most Vascular Plants Have Seeds23:25
- Cotyledons23:43
- Gymnosperm vs. Angiosperm24:50
- Divisions25:48
- Coniferophytes (Cone-Bearing Plants)27:05
- Examples27:07
- Evergreen or Deciduous27:44
- Gymnosperms28:26
- Economic Importance29:28
- Conifer Life Cycle30:10
- Dominant Generation30:13
- Cones Contain the Gametophyte30:25
- Illustration Explanation30:31
- Anthophytes (Flowering Plants)38:01
- Every Plant That Has Flowers38:03
- Angiosperms38:28
- Various Life Spans38:03
- Flower Anatomy40:25
- Female Parts40:54
- Male Parts42:49
- Flowering Plant Life Cycle44:48
- Dominant Generation44:56
- Flowers Contain the Gametophyte45:05
Plants, Part II
44m 40s
- Intro0:00
- Plant Cell Varieties0:05
- Parenchyma0:11
- Collenchyma1:37
- Sclerenchyma2:03
- Specialized Tissues2:56
- Plant Tissues3:17
- Meristematic Tissue3:21
- Dermal Tissue6:46
- Vascular Tissues8:45
- Ground Tissue13:56
- Roots14:24
- Root Cap15:59
- Cortex16:17
- Endodermis17:02
- Pericycle17:42
- Taproot18:11
- Fibrous18:20
- Modified18:49
- Stems19:49
- Tuber21:43
- Rhizome21:58
- Runner22:12
- Bulb and Corm22:49
- Leaves23:06
- Photosynthesis23:09
- Leaf Parts23:32
- Gas Exchange25:55
- Transpiration26:25
- Seeds27:41
- Cotyledons28:42
- Seed Coat29:29
- Endosperm29:37
- Embryo30:10
- Radicle30:27
- Epicotyl31:57
- Fruit33:49
- Fleshy Fruits34:46
- Aggregate Fruits35:17
- Multiple Fruits35:50
- Dry Fruits36:27
- Plant Hormones37:44
- Definition or Hormones37:48
- Examples38:12
- Plant Responses40:42
- Tropisms41:00
- Nastic Responses43:04
Fungi
26m 20s
- Intro0:00
- Fungi Basics0:03
- Characteristics0:09
- Closely Related to Kingdom Animalia2:33
- Fungal Structure2:58
- Hypae3:03
- Mycelium5:00
- Spore5:24
- Reproductive Strategies6:15
- Fragmentation6:23
- Budding6:35
- Spore Production7:03
- Zygomycota (Molds)7:50
- Sexual Reproduction8:04
- Dikaryotic9:47
- Stolons10:32
- Rhizoids10:53
- Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)11:43
- Largest Phylum of Fungi on Earth11:47
- Ascus12:20
- Conidia12:30
- Example12:46
- Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)14:51
- Basidium15:14
- Common Structures In These Fungi15:37
- Examples16:17
- Deuteromycota (Imperfect Fungi)17:25
- No Known Sexual Life Cycle17:31
- Penicillin18:00
- Benefits of Fungi18:51
- Mutualism18:56
- Food21:41
- Medicines22:30
- Decomposition23:08
- Fungal Infections23:38
- Athlete's Foot23:44
- Ringworm24:09
- Yeast Infections24:27
- Candidemia24:56
- Aspergillus25:15
- Fungal Meningitis25:44
Animals, Part I
35m 28s
- Intro0:00
- Animal Basics0:05
- Multicellular Eukaryotes0:12
- Motility0:27
- Heterotrophic0:47
- Sexual Reproduction0:57
- Symmetry1:14
- Gut1:26
- Cephalization1:40
- Segmentation1:53
- Sensory Organs2:09
- Reproductive Strategies3:07
- Gonads3:17
- Fertilization4:01
- Asexual4:53
- Animal Development7:27
- Zygote7:29
- Blastula7:50
- Gastrula9:07
- Embryo12:57
- Symmetry13:17
- Radial Symmetry14:14
- Bilateral Symmetry15:26
- Asymmetry16:34
- Body Cavities17:22
- Coelom17:24
- Acoelomates18:39
- Pseudocoelomates19:15
- Coelomates19:40
- Major Animal Phyla20:47
- Phylum Porifera21:15
- Phylum Cnidaria21:33
- Phylum Platyhelmininthes, Nematoda, and Annelida21:44
- Phylum Rotifera21:56
- Phylum Mollusca22:13
- Phylum Arthropoda22:34
- Phylum Echinodermata22:48
- Phylum Chordata23:18
- Phylum Porifera25:15
- Sponges25:23
- Oceanic or Aquatic26:07
- Adults are Sessile26:26
- Structure27:09
- Sexual or Asexual Reproduction28:31
- Phylum Cnidaria28:49
- Sea Jellies, Anemonse, Hydrozoans, and Corals28:57
- Mostly Oceanic30:42
- Body Types31:32
- Cnidocytes33:06
- Nerve Net34:55
Animals, Part II
48m 42s
- Intro0:00
- Phylum Platyhelminthes0:04
- Flatworms0:14
- Acoelomates0:33
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic0:46
- Simple Nervous System2:46
- Reproduction3:38
- Phylum Nematoda4:20
- Unsegmented Roundworms4:25
- Pseudocoelomates4:34
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic4:53
- Full Digestive Tract5:29
- Reproduction7:07
- C. Elegans7:24
- Phylum Annelida8:11
- Segmented Roundworms8:20
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic8:42
- Full Digestive Tract8:56
- Accordion-like Movement11:26
- Simple Nervous System12:31
- Sexual Reproduction13:40
- Class Oligochaeta14:47
- Class Polychaeta14:56
- Class Hirudinea15:13
- Phylum Rotifera16:11
- Pseudocoelomates16:26
- Terrestrial, Aquatic16:42
- Digestive Tract16:56
- Phylum Mollusca18:55
- Snails, Slugs, Clams, Oysters19:00
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic19:14
- Mantle19:29
- Full Digestive Tract with Specialized Organs21:10
- Sexual Reproduction24:29
- Major Classes24:58
- Phylum Arthropoda28:16
- Insects, Arachnids, Crustaceans28:19
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic28:41
- Head, Thorax, Abdomen28:50
- Excretion with Malpighian Tubes32:48
- Arthropod Groups34:06
- Phylum Echinodermata38:32
- Sea Stars, Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars, Sea Cucumbers38:37
- Oceanic or Aquatic39:36
- Water Vascular System39:43
- Full Digestive Tract40:38
- Sexual Reproduction42:01
- Phylum Chordata42:16
- All Vertebrates42:22
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, or Aquatic42:40
- Main Body Parts42:49
- Mostly in Subphylum Vertebrata44:54
- Examples45:14
Animals, Part III
35m 45s
- Intro0:00
- Characteristics of Subphylum Vertebrata0:04
- Vertebral Column0:16
- Neural Crest0:38
- Internal Organs1:24
- Fish Characteristics2:05
- Oceanic or Aquatic2:16
- Locomotion with Paired Fins3:15
- Gills4:18
- Fertilization8:14
- Movement8:30
- Fish Classes8:58
- Jawless Fishes9:06
- Cartilaginous Fishes10:07
- Bony Fishes10:46
- Amphibian Characteristics12:22
- Tetrapods12:29
- Moist Skin14:22
- Circulation14:39
- Nictitating Membrane16:36
- Tympanic Membrane16:56
- External Fertilization is Typical17:34
- Amphibian Orders18:20
- Order Anura18:27
- Order Caudata19:15
- Order Gymnophiona19:59
- Reptile Characteristics20:31
- Dry, Scaly Skin20:37
- Lungs for Gas Exchange22:00
- Terrestrial, Oceanic, Aquatic22:12
- Ectothermic23:07
- Internal Fertilization24:13
- Reptile Orders26:28
- Order Squamata26:33
- Order Crocodilia27:32
- Order Testudinata27:55
- Order Sphenodonta28:30
- Bird Characteristics28:43
- Feathers29:42
- Lightweight Bones31:33
- Lungs with Air Sacs32:25
- Endothermic33:47
- Internal Fertilization34:03
- Bird Orders34:13
- Order Passeriformes34:29
- Order Ciconiiformes34:46
- Order Sphenisciformes34:55
- Order Strigiformes35:20
- Order Struthioniformes35:25
- Order Anseriformes35:38
Mammals
38m 39s
- Intro0:00
- Mammary Glands and Hair0:04
- Class Mammalia Name0:20
- Hair Functions1:53
- Metabolic Characteristics3:58
- Endothermy4:01
- Feeding4:48
- Mammalian Organs8:43
- Respiratory System8:47
- Circulation9:26
- Brain and Senses10:29
- Glands11:56
- Mammalian Reproduction12:55
- Live Birth13:03
- Placental13:17
- Marsupial14:41
- Gestation Periods16:07
- Infraclass Marsupialia17:42
- Australia17:59
- Uterus/ Pouch18:33
- Origins18:53
- Examples19:24
- Order Monotremata20:21
- Egg Layers20:25
- Platypus, Echidna20:55
- Shoulder Area Has a Reptilian Bone Structure21:07
- Order Insectivora22:21
- Insectivores22:23
- Pointy Snouts22:32
- Burrowing22:53
- Examples23:10
- Order Chiroptera23:32
- True Flying Mammalian Order23:38
- Wings23:59
- Feeding24:21
- Examples25:08
- Order Xenarthra25:14
- Edentata25:18
- No Teeth25:23
- Location25:50
- Examples25:55
- Order Rodentia26:33
- 40% of Mammalian Species26:38
- 2 Pairs of Incisors26:45
- Examples27:28
- Order Lagomorpha28:06
- Herbivores28:30
- Examples28:41
- Order Carnivora29:19
- Teeth29:36
- Examples29:42
- Order Proboscidea30:37
- Largest Living Terrestrial Mammals30:40
- Trunks30:48
- Tusks31:12
- Examples31:33
- Order Sirenia32:01
- Large, Slow Moving Aquatic Mammals32:15
- Flippers32:26
- Herbivores32:37
- Examples32:42
- Order Cetacea32:46
- Large, Mostly Hairless Aquatic Mammals32:50
- Flippers33:06
- Fluke33:18
- Blowhole33:29
- Examples34:10
- Order Artiodactyla34:30
- Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals34:33
- Herbivores34:37
- Sometimes Grouped with Cetaceans34:52
- Examples35:35
- Order Perissodactyla35:57
- Odd-Toed Hoofed Mammals36:00
- Herbivores36:12
- Examples36:27
- Order Primates36:30
- Largest Brain-to-Body Ratio36:35
- Arboreal37:03
- Nails37:33
- Examples38:29
Animal Behavior
29m 55s
- Intro0:00
- Behavior Overview0:04
- Behavior0:08
- Origin of Behavior0:36
- Competitive Advantage1:26
- Innate Behaviors2:05
- Genetically Based2:07
- Instinct2:13
- Fixed Action Pattern3:31
- Learned Behavior5:13
- Habituation5:26
- Classical Conditioning6:31
- Operant Conditioning7:51
- Imprinting10:17
- Learned Behavior That Can Only Occur in a Specific Time Period10:20
- Sensitive Period10:28
- Cognitive Behaviors11:53
- Thinking, Reasoning, and Processing Information12:02
- Examples12:22
- Competitive Behaviors14:40
- Agonistic Behavior14:46
- Dominance Hierarchies15:23
- Territorial Behaviors16:19
- More Types of Behavior17:05
- Foraging Behaviors17:08
- Migratory Behaviors17:53
- Biological Rhythms19:15
- Communication Behaviors20:37
- Pheromones20:52
- Auditory Communication22:18
- Courting and Nurturing Behaviors23:42
- Courting Behaviors23:45
- Nurturing Behaviors26:04
- Cooperative Behaviors26:47
- Benefit All Members of the Group27:01
- Example27:08
Section 6: Ecology
Ecology, Part I
1h 7m 26s
- Intro0:00
- Ecology Basics0:05
- Ecology0:18
- Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors1:25
- Population2:23
- Community2:45
- Ecosystem3:04
- Biosphere3:27
- Individuals and Survival4:13
- Habitat4:23
- Niche4:37
- Symbiosis7:07
- Obtaining Energy11:14
- Producers11:24
- Consumers13:31
- Food Chain17:11
- Model to Illustrate How Matter Moves Through Organisms in an Ecosystem17:15
- Examples18:31
- Food Web20:29
- Keystone Species22:55
- Three Ecological Pyramids27:28
- Pyramid of Energy27:38
- Pyramid of Numbers31:39
- Pyramid of Biomass34:09
- The Water Cycle37:24
- The Carbon Cycle40:19
- The Nitrogen Cycle43:34
- The Phosphorus Cycle46:42
- Population Growth49:35
- Reproductive Patterns51:58
- Life History Patterns Vary52:10
- r-Selection53:30
- K-Selection56:55
- Density Factors59:02
- Density-Dependent Factors59:29
- Density-Independent Factors1:02:21
- Predator / Prey Relationships1:03:59
Ecology, Part II
50m 50s
- Intro0:00
- Mimicry0:05
- Batesian Mimicry0:38
- Müllerian Mimicry1:53
- Camouflage3:23
- Blend In with Surroundings3:38
- Evade Detection by Predators3:43
- Succession5:22
- Primary Succession5:40
- Secondary Succession7:44
- Biomes9:31
- Terrestrial10:08
- Aquatic / Marine10:05
- Desert11:20
- Annual Rainfall11:24
- Flora13:35
- Fauna14:15
- Tundra14:49
- Annual Rainfall15:00
- Permafrost15:50
- Flora16:06
- Fauna16:40
- Taiga (Boreal Forest)16:59
- Annual Rainfall17:14
- Largest Terrestrial Biome17:33
- Flora18:37
- Fauna18:49
- Temperate Grassland19:07
- Annual Rainfall19:28
- Flora20:14
- Fauna20:18
- Tropical Grassland (Savanna)20:41
- Annual Rainfall21:01
- Flora21:56
- Fauna22:00
- Temperate Deciduous Forest22:19
- Annual Rainfall23:11
- Flora23:45
- Fauna23:50
- Tropical Rain Forest24:11
- Annual Rainfall24:16
- Flora27:15
- Fauna27:49
- Lakes28:05
- Eutrophic28:21
- Oligotrophic28:29
- Zones29:34
- Estuaries32:56
- Area Where Freshwater and Salt Water Meet33:00
- Mangrove Swamps33:12
- Nutrient Traps33:52
- Organisms34:24
- Marine34:50
- Euphotic Zone35:16
- Pelagic Zone37:11
- Abyssal Plain38:15
- Conservation Summary40:03
- Biodiversity40:33
- Habitat Loss44:06
- Pollution44:55
- Climate Change47:03
- Global Warming47:06
- Greenhouse Gases47:48
- Polar Ice Caps49:01
- Weather Patterns50:00
Section 7: Laboratory
Laboratory Investigation I: Microscope Lab
24m 51s
- Intro0:00
- Light Microscope Parts0:06
- Microscope Use6:25
- Mount the Specimen6:28
- Place Slide on Stage7:29
- Ensure Specimen is Above Light Source8:11
- Lowest Objective Lens Faces Downward8:34
- Focus on the Image9:36
- Adjust the Nosepiece If Needed9:49
- Re-Focus9:57
- Human Skin Layers10:42
- Plants Cells13:43
- Human Lung Tissue15:20
- Euglena18:26
- Plant Stem20:43
- Mold22:57
Laboratory Investigation II: Egg Lab
11m 26s
- Intro0:00
- Egg Lab Introduction0:06
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:37
- Time1:24
- Day 11:28
- Day 23:59
- Day 36:05
- Analysis7:50
- Osmosis Connection10:24
- Hypertonic10:36
- Hypotonic10:49
Laboratory Investigation III: Carbon Dioxide Production
14m 34s
- Intro0:00
- Carbon Dioxide Introduction0:06
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:56
- Time2:39
- Part I2:41
- Put Water in Large Beaker3:09
- Exhale Into the Water3:15
- Add a Drop of Phenolphthalein4:31
- Add NaOH5:33
- Record the Amount of Drops6:10
- Part II6:24
- Add HCL6:39
- Exercise for Five Minutes7:26
- Return and Re-Do the Exhaling7:58
- Analysis9:11
- Aerobic Respiration Connection13:18
- As Aerobic Respiration Occurs In Cells, Carbon Dioxide Is Produced13:21
- Increase Output of Carbon Dioxide13:29
- Number of Exhalations Increase14:17
Laboratory Investigation IV: DNA Extraction Lab
10m 38s
- Intro0:00
- DNA Lab Introduction0:06
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:45
- Time2:03
- Part I2:06
- Pour Sports Drink Into the Small Cup2:08
- When Time Expires, Spit Into the Cup2:53
- Add Cell Lysate Solution3:21
- Let it Sit for a Couple Minutes4:04
- Part II4:10
- Slowly Add Cold Ethanol4:13
- DNA Will Creep Up Into the Ethanol Layer5:01
- Analysis5:59
- DNA Structure Connection8:49
- DNA is Microscopic8:54
- Visible DNA9:39
- Extracted DNA9:49
Laboratory Investigation V: Onion Root Tip Mitosis Lab
13m 12s
- Intro0:00
- Mitosis Lab Introduction0:06
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:57
- Time1:42
- Part I1:49
- Mount the Slide and Zoom Into the Root Apical Meristem1:50
- Zoom In3:00
- Count the Cells in Each Phase3:09
- Record Your Results3:52
- Microscope View Example3:58
- Part II6:49
- Move to Another Part of the Root Apical Meristem6:55
- Count the Phases in this Second Region7:02
- Analysis9:07
- Mitosis Connection11:17
- Rate of Mitosis Varies from Species to Species11:21
- Mitotic Rate Was Higher Since We Used An Actively Dividing Tissue12:16
Laboratory Investigation VI: Inheritance Lab
13m 55s
- Intro0:00
- Inheritance Lab Introduction0:05
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:53
- Time2:00
- Explanation2:03
- Basic Procedure5:03
- Analysis8:00
- Inheritance Laws Connection11:23
- Law of Segregation11:31
- Law of Independent Assortment12:49
Laboratory Investigation VII: Allele Frequencies
14m 11s
- Intro0:00
- Allele Frequencies Introduction0:05
- Purpose0:08
- Materials1:34
- Time2:10
- Part I2:12
- Part II7:05
- Analysis7:51
- Evolution Connection10:45
- Meant to Stimulate How a Population's Allele Frequencies Change Over Time10:47
- Particular Phenotypes Selected11:31
- Recessive Allele Keeps Dropping12:18
Laboratory Investigation VIII: Genetic Transformation
16m 42s
- Intro0:00
- Genetic Transformation Introduction0:06
- Purpose0:09
- Materials0:57
- Time3:31
- Set-Up4:18
- Starter Culture with E. Coli Colonies4:21
- Just E. Coli5:37
- Ampicillin with No Plasmid6:24
- Ampicillin with Plasmid7:11
- Ampicillin with Plasmid and Arabinose7:33
- Procedure8:35
- Analysis13:01
- Genetic Transformation Connection14:59
- Easier to Transform Bacteria Than a Multicellular Organism15:03
- Desired Trait Can be Expressed from the Bacteria15:52
- Numerous Applications in Medicine16:04
Loading...